The Science of Teaching Critical Thinking
Daniel T. Willingham, professor of psychology at the University of Virginia, is a leading researcher in the field of cognitive science, particularly in how it applies to education. He has authored several influential books, including Why Don’t Students Like School? and The Reading Mind. His research focuses on how students learn, the role of cognitive principles in effective teaching, and the science behind critical thinking development. In his 2019 paper How to Teach Critical Thinking Skills (discussed below), for the New South Wales Department of Education, Willingham explores the complexities of teaching critical thinking and provides evidence-based recommendations for educators.
The Paper
In an era of information overload, the ability to think critically is more important than ever. We live in a world where misinformation spreads quickly, decisions need to be made based on complex data, and artificial intelligence increasingly influences our daily lives. It is no surprise that educators, policymakers, and employers emphasize critical thinking.
But what does it really mean to teach critical thinking? Can it be taught as a standalone skill, or is it inherently tied to subject knowledge?
What is Critical Thinking?
Before we can teach critical thinking, we must define it. Willingham outlines three essential characteristics of critical thinking:
- Novel Thinking: Critical thinking occurs when a person encounters a situation that is new and unfamiliar, requiring them to analyze and reason rather than recall and use past solutions.
- Self-Directed Thinking: A person is thinking critically when they independently evaluate a situation rather than simply following instructions.
- Effective Thinking: For thinking to be considered critical, it must be guided by logical principles, such as considering both sides of an issue, evaluating evidence, and separating emotion from reason.
While these criteria offer a broad definition, Willingham acknowledges that critical thinking varies by domain. What counts as rigorous analysis in history differs from what is expected in physics or literature. This domain-specificity is crucial.
Can Critical Thinking Be Taught?
One of the most debated questions in education is whether critical thinking can be taught independently of subject matter. Some argue that students can develop general/generic thinking skills that apply across all disciplines, while others (like me) claim that critical thinking must be grounded in content knowledge. Willingham sides with the latter group, citing cognitive research that demonstrates how thinking skills are deeply intertwined with knowledge.
For instance, a person with no knowledge of psychology will struggle to critically evaluate a psychological study, no matter how strong their logical reasoning skills. Similarly, an individual with no background in finance will find it difficult to assess the validity of an economic argument. That doesn’t mean that they don’t form an opinion, just that their opinion is in no way based upon critical thinking! Research supports this view, showing that students who receive explicit instruction in critical thinking within a subject domain perform better than those who are taught general thinking skills in isolation.
Why Does Critical Thinking Fail to Transfer?
A key challenge in teaching critical thinking is that it does not transfer well between contexts. A student may learn how to evaluate arguments in an English class but fail to apply the same reasoning skills when interpreting data in a science class. This phenomenon, known as transfer failure, occurs because people tend to focus on surface-level features of a problem rather than its deeper structure.
One famous study illustrates this concept: participants were given a medical problem involving a tumor and asked to devise a treatment strategy. Few participants solved it. When given an analogous problem involving a military strategy (attacking a fortress from multiple directions), participants still did not see the connection—unless explicitly told that the two problems were related. This suggests that people struggle to recognize when a learned strategy from one situation applies to a new situation, making it difficult for general critical thinking skills to develop.
The Four-Step Plan to Teaching Critical Thinking
Based on cognitive science research, Willingham proposes a structured approach to teaching critical thinking:
- Identify critical thinking skills for each subject: Educators must define what critical thinking looks like in their specific discipline. In history, it may involve sourcing documents and evaluating bias; in science, it may require designing experiments and interpreting data.
- Pair skills with subject matter knowledge: Students need a strong knowledge base to think critically. Teaching argument analysis in a history class, for example, requires students to understand historical events and contexts.
- Sequence skills appropriately: Just as math skills build on one another, critical thinking skills should be taught in a logical progression, with simpler tasks leading to more complex reasoning over time.
- Reinforce skills across multiple years: To ensure long-term retention, critical thinking skills should be revisited repeatedly in different contexts throughout a student’s education.
Strategies to Enhance Critical Thinking Instruction
While content knowledge is essential, certain teaching strategies can improve students’ ability to apply critical thinking skills effectively. Willingham highlights two powerful techniques:
- Comparison and Analogy: Presenting students with two problems that share a deep structural similarity but differ in surface details encourages them to focus on underlying principles rather than superficial features. For example, asking students to compare a legal argument to a scientific hypothesis can help them see commonalities in reasoning.
- Subgoal Labeling: In math and science, explicitly labeling the steps in a problem-solving process can help students apply their knowledge to new contexts. For example, rather than teaching a step-by-step formula for calculating probability, teachers can label each step with its purpose (e.g., “Determine possible outcomes” and “Assess likelihood”) to encourage deeper understanding.
The Role of Knowledge in Open-Ended Critical Thinking
Beyond structured problem-solving, critical thinking is also essential for tackling open-ended challenges, such as writing persuasive essays, conducting scientific research, or making ethical decisions. In these cases, knowledge plays an even greater role. Experts in any field can think critically because they have a vast store of information to draw upon, allowing them to recognize patterns and anticipate consequences that novices cannot.
For example, an experienced chess player can evaluate a complex board position much faster than a beginner because they recognize familiar configurations and strategies. Similarly, a scientist designing an experiment relies on extensive knowledge of prior research, methodologies, and common pitfalls. This underscores the importance of deep learning—students need more than just surface-level familiarity with a subject to think critically within it.
Conclusion: A Call for Content-Rich Critical Thinking Education
The debate over how to teach critical thinking is far from settled, but Willingham’s analysis offers clear guidance: critical thinking is not a stand-alone skill but one that is deeply embedded in subject knowledge. Efforts to teach generic critical thinking skills without content knowledge are unlikely to be effective. Instead, educators should integrate critical thinking instruction into their subjects, ensuring that students develop reasoning skills alongside a strong foundation of knowledge.
To truly prepare students for the complexities of modern life, we must move beyond superficial exercises in logic and debate. A well-designed curriculum that emphasizes deep, domain-specific knowledge—reinforced through deliberate practice over time—offers the best chance of equipping students with the critical thinking abilities they need to navigate an increasingly complex world.
